Energy captured from sunlight, either directly as electricity in photovoltaic cells or as heat in solar thermal systems. From the first practical silicon solar cell in 1954, photovoltaics fell in cost by orders of magnitude to become, in the 2020s, the cheapest source of new electricity in much of the world and the fastest-growing major energy source.
Facts
Source Class First Commercial YearBell Laboratories demonstrated the first practical silicon photovoltaic cell in 1954; Charles Fritts built a selenium cell in 1883, far too inefficient for commercial use. Connections
Associated With
Source Edmond Becquerel (Wikipedia)
Source Augustin Mouchot (Wikipedia)
Source EBSCO Research Starters
Source Wikipedia: Dye-sensitized solar cell
Source Calvin Souther Fuller (Wikipedia)
Source Charles Fritts (Wikipedia)
Source Charles Greeley Abbot (Wikipedia)
Source Daryl Chapin (Wikipedia)
Source United States Energy Information Administration Official Site
Source Farrington Daniels (Wikipedia)
Source Frank Shuman (Wikipedia)
Source Gerald Pearson (Wikipedia)
Solar photovoltaics is the most frequently cited example of a technology that has reached grid parity in multiple markets.
Source Wikipedia
Source Renewable Energy World: Zvi Tabor, Solar Pioneer, Passes Away
IRENA's founding mandate (2009) spans all renewable technologies including solar power.
Source Mária Telkes (Wikipedia)
Source Wikipedia: Dye-sensitized solar cell
Source National Renewable Energy Laboratory Official Site
Rooftop solar photovoltaics is the dominant real-world use case for net metering programs.
Source Russell Ohl (Wikipedia)
Space-based solar power is a variant of solar power generation, collecting sunlight via orbital photovoltaic or thermal collectors and beaming the energy to Earth rather than collecting it terrestrially.
Source Stanford R. Ovshinsky (Wikipedia)
Source Wikipedia: Crookes radiometer
Source William Grylls Adams (Wikipedia)
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Source Wikipedia: Solar energy
Source Solar furnace, Wikipedia
Source Solar inverter - Wikipedia
Source Wikipedia: Solar panel
Source Solar pond, Wikipedia
Source Solar power tower, Wikipedia
Source Solar still - Wikipedia
Source Solar thermal collector, Wikipedia
Source Wikipedia: Solar thermal energy
Source Wikipedia: Solar Tracker
Source Wikipedia: Solar updraft tower
Source Wikipedia: Solar water heating
Source Wikipedia: Solar water heating
Source Solar-assisted heat pump - Wikipedia
Source Solar-powered pump - Wikipedia
Photovoltaic solar park, Ningxia, China, among the largest solar parks in the world by capacity.
Photovoltaic solar park development project, Ningxia, China.
Source Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion (Wikipedia)
Source Wikipedia: Thin-film solar cell
Source Wikipedia: Trombe wall
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Sources
1. United States Energy Information Administration Official Site
US Energy Information AdministrationUsed By: Concentrated Solar Power, Solar explained, Solar thermal power plants
The steam is converted into mechanical energy in a turbine, which powers a generator to produce electricity.
Associated With: Duck Curve, Today in Energy, As solar capacity grows, duck curves are getting deeper in California
grid operators at the California Independent System Operator (CAISO) have observed a drop in net load...in the middle of the day when solar generation tends to be highest
View the Source 2. National Renewable Energy Laboratory Official Site
International Renewable Energy Agency Official Site
International Renewable Energy AgencyUsed By: Noor Ouarzazate Solar ComplexView the Source EBSCO Research Starters
EBSCO Information ServicesAssociated With: Bell Labs Silicon Solar Cell, Research Starters, Bell Scientists Develop Photovoltaic CellQuote, Associated With: Bell Labs Silicon Solar Cell, Research Starters, Bell Scientists Develop Photovoltaic Cell
The first application of the silicon solar cell, in 1957, was to power a telephone repeater in Americus, Georgia.
View the Source United States Department of Energy Official Site
US Department of EnergyUsed By: Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System, Loan Programs Office, Ivanpah, Project SummaryQuote, Used By: Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System, Loan Programs Office, Ivanpah, Project Summary
a 392-MW concentrating solar power (CSP) plant
View the Source Wikipedia
Wikimedia FoundationAssociated With: Grid Parity, Early AchievementsQuote, Associated With: Grid Parity, Early Achievements
Germany was one of the first countries to reach parity for solar PV in 2011 and 2012 for utility-scale solar and rooftop solar PV, respectively.
View the Source Wikipedia: Thin-film solar cell
WikipediaUsed By: Thin-Film Solar Cell, Thin-film solar cell, opening definitionQuote, Used By: Thin-Film Solar Cell, Thin-film solar cell, opening definition
Thin-film solar cells are a type of solar cell made by depositing thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a glass, plastic or metal substrate.
View the Source Encyclopedia Britannica
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.Used By: Concentrating PhotovoltaicsView the Source Wikipedia: Solar water heating
Used By: Solar Water Heater, Wikipedia article lead
Solar water heating (SWH) is heating water by sunlight, using a solar thermal collector. A variety of configurations are
Used By: Solar Water Heating, Wikipedia article lead
Solar water heating (SWH) is heating water by sunlight, using a solar thermal collector. A variety of configurations are
View the SourceWikipedia: Organic Rankine cycle
WikipediaUsed By: Organic Rankine Cycle, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Organic Rankine Cycle, Wikipedia article lead
recovery from lower-temperature sources such as biomass combustion, industrial waste heat, geothermal heat, solar ponds etc. The low-temperature heat is converted into useful work, that can
View the Source Wikipedia: Perovskite solar cell
WikipediaUsed By: Perovskite Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Perovskite Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
A perovskite solar cell (PSC) is a type of solar cell that includes a perovskite-structured
View the Source Wikipedia: Bifacial solar cells
WikipediaUsed By: Bifacial Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Bifacial Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
A bifacial solar cell (BSC) is a photovoltaic solar cell that can produce electrical energy from both front and rear side. In
View the Source Wikipedia: Building-integrated photovoltaics
WikipediaUsed By: Building-Integrated Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Building-Integrated Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article lead
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace conventional building materials in parts of
View the Source Wikipedia: Floating solar
WikipediaUsed By: Floating Solar, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Floating Solar, Wikipedia article lead
(FPV), sometimes called floatovoltaics, are solar panels mounted on a structure that floats. The structures that hold the panels usually consist of
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar air conditioning
WikipediaUsed By: Solar Air Conditioning, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Air Conditioning, Wikipedia article lead
to any air conditioning (cooling) system that uses solar power. This can be done through passive solar design, solar thermal energy
View the Source Wikipedia: Dye-sensitized solar cell
WikipediaUsed By: Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
cell (DSSC, DSC, DYSC or Grätzel cell) is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a
Associated With: Michael Grätzel, Lead
is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells
Associated With: Brian O'Regan, Lead
is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells
View the Source Wikipedia: Multi-junction solar cell
WikipediaUsed By: Multi-Junction Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Multi-Junction Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
Multi-junction (MJ) solar cells are solar cells with multiple p-n junctions made of different semiconductor materials. Each
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar updraft tower
WikipediaUsed By: Solar Updraft Tower, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Updraft Tower, Wikipedia article lead
updraft tower (SUT) is a design concept for a renewable-energy power plant for generating electricity from low-temperature solar heat. Sunshine
View the Source Wikipedia: Trombe wall
WikipediaUsed By: Trombe Wall, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Trombe Wall, Wikipedia article lead
color in order to absorb thermal energy from incident sunlight and covered with a glass on the outside with an insulating air-gap
View the Source Solar thermal collector, Wikipedia
Used By: Solar Thermal Collector, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Thermal Collector, Wikipedia article lead
A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector" commonly refers to a device for solar hot
View the Source Quantum dot solar cell, Wikipedia
Used By: Quantum Dot Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Quantum Dot Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the captivating photovoltaic material. It
View the Source Wikipedia: Photovoltaic System
WikipediaUsed By: Photovoltaic System, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Photovoltaic System, Wikipedia article lead
A photovoltaic system, also called a PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar augmented geothermal energy
Used By: Solar Augmented Geothermal Energy, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Augmented Geothermal Energy, Wikipedia article lead
Solar augmented geothermal energy (SAGE) is an advanced method of geothermal energy that creates a synthetic
View the Source Parabolic trough, Wikipedia
Used By: Parabolic Trough, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Parabolic Trough, Wikipedia article lead
A parabolic trough collector (PTC) is a type of solar thermal collector that is straight in one dimension and curved as a parabola in the
View the Source Solar power tower, Wikipedia
Used By: Solar Power Tower, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Power Tower, Wikipedia article lead
plant or 'heliostat' power plant, is a type of solar furnace using a tower to receive focused sunlight. It uses an array of flat,
View the Source Compact linear Fresnel reflector, Wikipedia
Used By: Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector, Wikipedia article lead
reflectors use long, thin segments of mirrors to focus sunlight onto a fixed absorber located at a common focal point of the
View the Source Solar furnace, Wikipedia
Used By: Solar Furnace, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Furnace, Wikipedia article lead
A solar furnace is a structure that uses concentrated solar power to produce high temperatures, usually for industry. Parabolic mirrors
View the Source Solar pond, Wikipedia
Used By: Solar Pond, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Pond, Wikipedia article lead
is a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also
View the Source Artificial photosynthesis - Wikipedia
Used By: Artificial Photosynthesis, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Artificial Photosynthesis, Wikipedia article lead
to any scheme for capturing and then storing energy from sunlight by producing a fuel, specifically a solar fuel. An advantage of
View the Source Cadmium telluride photovoltaics (Wikipedia)
Used By: Cadmium Telluride Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Cadmium Telluride Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article lead
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics is a photovoltaic (PV) technology based on the use of cadmium telluride in a thin semiconductor layer
View the Source Copper indium gallium selenide solar cell - Wikipedia
Used By: Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
cell, sometimes CI(G)S or CIS cell) is a type of thin-film solar cell. It is manufactured by depositing a thin layer of copper indium
View the Source Heterojunction solar cell - Wikipedia
Used By: Heterojunction Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Heterojunction Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
Heterojunction solar cells (HJT), variously known as Silicon heterojunctions (SHJ) or
View the Source Organic solar cell - Wikipedia
Used By: Organic Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Organic Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
cell (OSC) or plastic solar cell is a type of photovoltaic that uses organic electronics, a branch of electronics that deals
View the Source Wikipedia: Photovoltaic effect
Used By: Photovoltaic Effect, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Photovoltaic Effect, Wikipedia article lead
The photovoltaic effect is a physical phenomenon in which a semiconductor material generates
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar cell fabric
Used By: Solar Cell Fabric, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Cell Fabric, Wikipedia article lead
fabric refers to textiles that have integrated photovoltaic (PV) cells, enabling them to generate electricity when exposed to light. This
View the Source Solar-powered pump - Wikipedia
Used By: Solar-Powered Pump, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar-Powered Pump, Wikipedia article lead
pumps run on electricity generated by photovoltaic (PV) panels or the radiated thermal energy available from collected sunlight as
View the Source Solar-assisted heat pump - Wikipedia
Used By: Solar-Assisted Heat Pump, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar-Assisted Heat Pump, Wikipedia article lead
(SAHP) is a system that combines a heat pump and thermal solar panels and/or PV solar panels in a single integrated system. Heat pumps
View the Source Solar inverter - Wikipedia
Used By: Solar Inverter, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Inverter, Wikipedia article lead
A solar inverter or photovoltaic (PV) inverter is a type of power inverter which converts the variable direct
View the Source Solar cooker - Wikipedia
Used By: Solar Cooker, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Cooker, Wikipedia article lead
as a solar oven, is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or pasteurize food and drinks. Many solar ovens
View the Source Luminescent solar concentrator - Wikipedia
Used By: Luminescent Solar Concentrator, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Luminescent Solar Concentrator, Wikipedia article lead
(LSC) is a device for concentrating radiation, solar radiation in particular, to produce electricity. Luminescent solar
View the Source Biohybrid solar cell - Wikipedia
Used By: Biohybrid Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Biohybrid Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
A biohybrid solar cell is a solar cell made using a combination of organic matter
View the Source Solar still - Wikipedia
Used By: Solar Still, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Still, Wikipedia article lead
with substances dissolved in it by using the heat of the Sun to evaporate water so that it may be cooled and collected, thereby
View the Source Plasmonic solar cell - Wikipedia
Used By: Plasmonic Solar Cell, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Plasmonic Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
solar cell, commonly referred to simply as plasmonic solar cell, is a type of solar cell (including thin-film or wafer-based cells)
View the Source Agrivoltaics - Wikipedia
Used By: Agrivoltaics, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Agrivoltaics, Wikipedia article lead
(also called agrophotovoltaics, agrisolar, or dual-use solar) refers to the practice of using the same land for both solar energy
View the Source Wikipedia: Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
Used By: Photovoltaic Thermal Hybrid Solar Collector, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Photovoltaic Thermal Hybrid Solar Collector, Wikipedia article lead
abbreviated as PVT collectors and also known as hybrid solar collectors, photovoltaic thermal solar collectors, PV/T collectors or solar
View the Source Thermophotovoltaic energy conversion (Wikipedia)
Used By: Thermophotovoltaic, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Thermophotovoltaic, Wikipedia article lead
Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) energy conversion is a direct conversion process from heat to
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar cell
Used By: Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article lead
cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by using the photovoltaic effect. It is a type of photoelectric cell,
Used By: Solar Cell, Wikipedia article lead
cell (PV cell), is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by using the photovoltaic effect. It is a type of photoelectric cell,
View the SourceWikipedia: Solar thermal energy
Used By: Solar Thermal Energy, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Thermal Energy, Wikipedia article lead
(STE) is a form of energy and a technology for harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry, and in the
View the Source Wikipedia: Intermediate band photovoltaics
Used By: Intermediate Band Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Intermediate Band Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article lead
Intermediate band photovoltaics in solar cell research provides methods for exceeding the Shockley-Queisser limit on the
View the Source Wikipedia: Hybrid solar lighting
Used By: Hybrid Solar Lighting, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Hybrid Solar Lighting, Wikipedia article lead
solar lighting (HSL) or hybrid lighting systems combine the use of solar with artificial light for interior illumination by channelling
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar energy
Used By: Solar Energy, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Energy, Wikipedia article lead
Solar energy is the radiant energy from the Sun's light and heat, which can be harnessed using a range of
View the Source Wikipedia: Concentrator photovoltaics
Used By: Concentrator Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Concentrator Photovoltaics, Wikipedia article lead
or concentration photovoltaics, is a photovoltaic technology that generates electricity from sunlight. Unlike conventional
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar chimney
Used By: Solar Chimney, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Used By: Solar Chimney, Wikipedia article lead
A solar chimney, often referred to as a thermal chimney, is a way of improving the
View the Source Russell Ohl (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Russell Ohl, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Russell Ohl, Wikipedia article lead
scientist who is generally recognized for patenting the modern solar cell (U.S. patent 2,402,662, "Light sensitive device"). Ohl was a notable
View the Source Charles Fritts (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Charles Fritts, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Charles Fritts, Wikipedia article lead
an American inventor credited with creating the first working selenium cell in 1883. According to CleanTechnica, the world's first rooftop solar
View the Source Frank Shuman (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Frank Shuman, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Frank Shuman, Wikipedia article lead
28, 1918) was an American inventor, engineer and solar energy pioneer known for his work on solar engines, especially those that used solar
View the Source Augustin Mouchot (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Augustin Mouchot, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Augustin Mouchot, Wikipedia article lead
a 19th-century French inventor of the earliest solar-powered engine, converting solar energy into mechanical steam power.
View the Source Gerald Pearson (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Gerald Pearson, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Gerald Pearson, Wikipedia article lead
on silicon rectifiers at Bell Labs led to the invention of the solar cell. In 2008, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
View the Source Daryl Chapin (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Daryl Chapin, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Daryl Chapin, Wikipedia article lead
1995) was an American physicist, best known for co-inventing solar cells in 1954 during his work at Bell Labs alongside Calvin S. Fuller and
View the Source Mária Telkes (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Maria Telkes, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Maria Telkes, Wikipedia article lead
engineer, and inventor who worked on solar energy technologies. She moved to the United States in 1925 to work as a biophysicist.
View the Source Edmond Becquerel (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel, Wikipedia article lead
magnetism, electricity, and optics. In 1839, he discovered the photovoltaic effect, the operating principle of the solar cell, which he invented in the
View the Source Farrington Daniels (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Farrington Daniels, Wikipedia article leadQuote, Associated With: Farrington Daniels, Wikipedia article lead
is considered one of the pioneers of the modern direct use of solar energy.
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar Tracker
WikipediaUsed By: Solar Tracker, LeadQuote, Used By: Solar Tracker, Lead
A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the Sun.
View the Source Renewable Energy World: Zvi Tabor, Solar Pioneer, Passes Away
Associated With: Harry Zvi Tabor, Opening paragraphQuote, Associated With: Harry Zvi Tabor, Opening paragraph
He was instrumental in developing the solar water heater that 95 percent of Israeli households have.
View the Source Wikipedia: Solar panel
Used By: Solar Panel, LeadQuote, Used By: Solar Panel, Lead
A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using multiple solar modules that consist of photovoltaic (PV) cells.
View the Source Monocrystalline silicon - Wikipedia
Used By: Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell, LeadQuote, Used By: Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell, Lead
mono-Si serves as a highly efficient light-absorbing material for the production of solar cells
View the Source Polycrystalline silicon - Wikipedia
Used By: Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell, LeadQuote, Used By: Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell, Lead
used as a raw material by the solar photovoltaic and electronics industry
View the Source Amorphous silicon
Used By: Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell, LeadQuote, Used By: Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell, Lead
the non-crystalline form of silicon used to create solar cells in solar panels
View the Source Wikipedia: PERC solar cell
Used By: PERC Solar Cell, LeadQuote, Used By: PERC Solar Cell, Lead
These cells are assembled into solar panels as part of a photovoltaic system to generate solar power from sunlight.
View the Source Wikipedia: Energy tower (downdraft)
Used By: Energy Tower (Downdraft), ConceptQuote, Used By: Energy Tower (Downdraft), Concept
The energy that is extracted from the air is ultimately derived from the sun, so this can be considered a form of solar power.
View the Source Wikipedia: Crookes radiometer
WikipediaAssociated With: William Crookes, LeadQuote, Associated With: William Crookes, Lead
Today the device is mainly used in physics education as a demonstration of a heat engine run by light energy.
View the Source Wikipedia: Vortex engine
Used By: Atmospheric Vortex Engine, LeadQuote, Used By: Atmospheric Vortex Engine, Lead
the heat is provided by a large area of ground heated by the sun
View the Source Solar power (Wikipedia)
In Group: Sun, Wind and Water Power, LeadQuote, In Group: Sun, Wind and Water Power, Lead
Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power.
View the Source Calvin Souther Fuller (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Calvin Fuller, Lead sectionQuote, Associated With: Calvin Fuller, Lead section
He helped develop synthetic rubber during World War II, he was involved in early experiments of zone melting, he is credited with devising the method of transistor production yielding diffusion transistors, he produced some of the first solar cells with high efficiency, and he researched polymers and their applications.
View the Source Charles Greeley Abbot (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Charles Greeley Abbot, Lead sectionQuote, Associated With: Charles Greeley Abbot, Lead section
As an astrophysicist, he researched the solar constant, research that led him to invent the solar cooker, solar boiler, solar still, and other patented solar energy inventions.
View the Source William Grylls Adams (Wikipedia)
Associated With: William Grylls Adams, Lead sectionQuote, Associated With: William Grylls Adams, Lead section
His research in optics yielded the discovery that certain materials, notably selenium, produce an electric current when exposed to light.
View the Source Stanford R. Ovshinsky (Wikipedia)
Associated With: Stanford R. Ovshinsky, Lead sectionQuote, Associated With: Stanford R. Ovshinsky, Lead section
Among the most prominent are: the nickel-metal hydride battery, which has been widely used in laptop computers, digital cameras, cell phones, and electric and hybrid cars; flexible thin-film solar energy laminates and panels; flat panel liquid crystal displays; rewritable CD and DVD discs; hydrogen fuel cells; and nonvolatile phase-change memory.
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